A study into the discourses present in schools

This paper will be a theoretically based survey into the discourse of the instruction system and its handiness by a peculiar demographic of students in the instruction system. The purposes of this paper are to derive an apprehension of the function that discourses drama in schools, to recognize the links between discourse, linguistic communication and individuality, to foreground the societal justness issues that arise when some students can non entree the course of study and to suggest back uping and opposing statements for a alteration in lingual codifications in the school environment. In this paper, when adverting the term ‘discourse ‘ , I will mention to the definition used by Gee ( 1990 ) : â€Å" a socially accepted association among ways of utilizing linguistic communication, of thought, feeling, believing, valuing, and of moving that can be used to place oneself as a member of a socially meaningful group or ‘social web ‘ , or to signal ( that one is playing ) a socially meaningful ‘role ‘ . † ( p. 143 ) It will go clear during this paper that discourse is non modestly the words one uses, or the phrases that are understood by peculiar groups. It is the really make-up of what individuality is. Classroom discourse is an of import country of survey because it is the medium by which information from the topics is transferred from the course of study, schools and instructors to the students. It is besides of personal involvement due to experiences of learning at an interior metropolis school, whose population consisted of an above national norm of students from households from a low socioeconomic country of the state, with the bulk of students entitled to free school repasts. From duologues with these students ( both separately and collaboratively in the schoolroom context ) , I realised that there was a distinguishable contrast in the discourse used by both parties. Occasionally inquiries arose from students that were finally a palingenesis of a statement already expressed by myself. This facet of revoicing will be scrutinised, and its importance to classroom discourse emphasised in this piece of work. Further inquiries originating from this experience related to the entree t hese students had to the course of study being taught to them. It was pertinent that the repeat by the students showed a deficiency of apprehension of the linguistic communication used instead than of the value of the content being taught. Was the discourse of the course of study an obstruction to the acquisition of these students? Surely if the student can non understand the instructor ( and every bit if the instructor can non understand the student ) , larning must be impeded. It is my purpose to analyze these differences and understand the links between discourse, individuality and cultural capital of this peculiar demographic of student, the discourse of schools, and the importance of these differences. At the foundation of the apprehension of the discourse of a peculiar individual or group of people, is its links to their distinguishing individuality. Harmonizing to Gee ( 1991, in Mitchell and Weiler, p. 1 ) , discourse encompasses the garb one wears, instructions on how to move, how to talk and taking on specified recognizable functions. It is hence more than merely the idiom one uses, it is all that is used to make an individuality, an ‘identity kit ‘ as competently put by Gee. The functions that one is given are tied to the environment in which they are present, for illustration – locally – the functions assigned to a instructor when they are in the school environment. A instructor will be trained to act, talk, act, think and even frock in a specific manner because that is what the environment demands, differences in these behaviors would foreground non-conformity toward the societal environment, and basically the discourse itself. Similarly, one could propose that kids, harmonizing to their societal groups will utilize a peculiar discourse that relates to that peculiar group ( Bernstein, 1962, p. 33 ) . Identity is per se linked to linguistic communication, as explained by Barker and GalasiA„ski ( 2001, p. 28 ) as a merchandise of civilization â€Å" to which linguistic communication is cardinal † . They besides attempt to help the apprehension of how of import the construct of individuality is to the sense of affinity shared by peculiar groups, such as students. They describe individuality as an thought of belonging or associating to a group of people with which one can place emotionally ( p. 28 ) . This thought is developed by Marshall ( 1990, in Ball, 1990, p. 14 ) when explicating Foucault ‘s doctrine of the ‘subject ‘ , intending â€Å" both being tied to person else by control and dependance, and being tied to one ‘s ain individuality by a scruples or self-knowledge. † Another of import facet that will be explicated is the importance of linguistic communication as a tool to determine a power construction and the barriers that this causes to taking alternate attacks to educating. As highlighted by Gee ( ibid. , p. 2 ) , closely of import to talk about is the manner power is distributed, specifically in a hierarchal nature. This position suggests that disputing the discourse could be viewed as a challenge to the school bureaucratism. Discourses, Compatibility and Access to Education I have briefly outlined the two discourses that are of involvement, to progress this probe it would be relevant to analyze and explain the relationship between the two in a school environment, and finally, if they are compatible. To understand if these two discourses are compatible it is of import to understand some cardinal issues such as entree to peculiar codifications of linguistic communication ( Bernstein, 1962 ) , cultural capital ( Rothstein, 2004, p.19 ) and issues of individuality and willingness to accommodate ( Bernstein, 1958 ) . The course of study and schools in general have a peculiar codification of linguistic communication. Wittgenstein ( 2001, p. 6 ) metaphorically describes words as tools in a tool chest, explicating that merely as a cock or gum may hold different maps, so excessively words may hold assorted utilizations depending upon the context. Hymes and Gumperz ( 1971 in Bernstein, 1971, p. 145 ) conceptualise codification as â€Å" the rule which regulates the choice and organisation of speech events. † Auer ( 1998, p. 38 ) explains the codification of linguistic communication as â€Å" a mechanism of transduction between purposes†¦ and vocalizations, and so between vocalizations and readings. † This is further developed by Littlejohn explicating linguistic communication codification as â€Å" a set of forming rules behind the linguistic communication employed by members of a societal group † ( 2002, p.A 178 ) . Two types of lingual codification are identified: elaborated and restricted ( Bernstein, 1962, p. 32 ) . Basically the difference between the two is based on the trouble of anticipation ( Hymes and Gumperz, 1971, in Bernstein, 1971, p. 145 ) and the scope of options available in the vocabulary ( Bernstein, 1962, p. 32 ) , where they are inversely relative. Elaborated codification is defined as holding an extended scope of options and hence the predictability of the vocabulary is low. â€Å" An detailed codification facilitates the building and exchange of individuated symbols. The verbal planning map associated with this codification promotes a higher degree of structural administration and lexicon choice [ with regard to a restricted codification ] . The readying and bringing of comparatively expressed significance is the major intent of the codification † ( p. 33 ) Conversely restricted codification although differing harmonizing to the societal scene, its vocabulary will be drawn from a sparse scope. The conditions for development of this codification varies but in general is based on a â€Å" common set of closely shared designations, self-consciously held by the members, where immediateness of the relationship is stressed. † ( p. 32 ) Peer groups of kids and striplings are premier illustrations of the demographic that use this organized construction and specific vocabulary choice. It could be argued that these groups prefer the usage of this codification because of the societal facet of their relationships. Bernstein notes the possibility that â€Å" restricted codification facilitates the building and exchange of societal symbols. † ( 1962, p. 33 ) Of peculiar involvement are pupils from the lower categories, due to the manner in which they are raised and live their lives, it is thought that they have less entree to the discourse of instruction. Harmonizing to Rothstein ( 2004 ) those from the lower categories are read to in early childhood less frequently than those who have educated parents, and those who are read to, are non as challenged with the originative inquiries. This consequences in a lower acquaintance with words, impacting upon early acquisition upon school entry, irrespective of the natural ability of the kid to larn ( p. 19 ) . Children and striplings from lower socio-economic backgrounds are premier illustrations of users of restricted codification, nevertheless as detailed codification is more expressed in significance, it is a better method of communicating when trying to supply accounts when there is no old cognition, so more comprehensive accounts can be delivered ( p.34 ) , a state of affairs which reflects favorably to a school environment where students are having the bulk of information for the first clip. As instruction is arguably more appropriately delivered in detailed codification, the consequence is the outgrowth of the discourse job. To back up this Bernstein ( 1962 ) explains that elaborative codification is universalistic with mention to its significance with regard to its theoretical account, i.e. â€Å" it summarises general societal agencies and terminals. † ( p. 33 ) and hence â€Å" merely some people have entree to the codification and to the possible universalistic character of its significances. † ( p. 34 ) . Contrarily, restricted codification is particularistic with mention to its significance with regard to its theoretical account, i.e. â€Å" it summarises local societal agencies and terminals. † ( p. 33 ) therefore â€Å" all people have entree to the codification and to its local condensed significances † ( p. 34 ) . As non all people have entree to elaborative codification, pupils when at school can hold different experiences in footings of the development of their cultural capital ( Hymes and Gumperz, 1971, in Berstein, 1971, p. 143-144 ) a position supported by Rothstein ‘s account of the attainment spread ( Rothstein, 2004, p. 20 ) . Hymes and Gumperz explain that harmonizing to how receptive a kid is to the discourse of instruction, they will see a relative sum of symbolic and societal development ( ibid. ) . Both of these statements are supported by Gould ( 1965 ) , who adds that a restricted codification should non be devalued, as it has the power to unify the user to fellow societal group members and the community – a point besides stressed by Bernstein ( 1962, p. 36 ) – furthermore a alteration of codification alters the cardinal elements of what constructs their societal individuality and world. â€Å" This statement means that educational establishments in a unstab le society carry within themselves estranging inclinations. † ( cited in Bernstein, 1971, p. 136-137 ) . When a member of society is non included in such of import facets of societal life, such as schooling, particularly when it is their right to be so, it raises the issue of societal justness which is defined by Rawls ( 1971 ) : â€Å" the primary topic of justness is the basic construction of society, or more precisely, the manner in which the major societal establishments distribute cardinal rights and responsibilities and find the division of advantages from societal cooperation. † ( p. 7 ) Analyzing this definition of societal justness leads me to oppugn if all schools are so administering the cardinal right of instruction reasonably, and is sufficient advantage provided to those who have inferior entree to the discourse of instruction? Social justness is undeniably an of import public issue in the context of the United Kingdom and England. Tomlinson ( 2005, p. 153 ) evidences this observing the confidence of the Prime Minister in 1997, Tony Blair, plighting that â€Å" The New Labour authorities came to power confirming a committedness to societal justness and to instruction as a means to make a socially merely society. † He besides notes the Prime Minister pulling upon links with societal development, promoting states to be unfastened to difference in 1999 ( ibid. ) . If societal justness in the schoolroom is to be achieved, and if it presently is non due to the impression of the course of study being unaccessible because of the discourse used, should the thought of alteration of lingual codification in the schoolroom be entertained? Keeping in head that linguistic communication is an intrinsic portion of individuality, the effects of enforcing a alteration to something every bit personal as an individuality should be carefully examined before being implemented. Bernstein ( 1958 ) intimates that the lower person ‘s societal strata, the greater opposition they will demo to formal instruction and acquisition, including that this is really a map of the group. His literature besides explains the method of opposition that is likely to be displayed, including, critical jobs of subject, non-acceptance of the values of the instructor, the failure to develop and experience the demand for an extended vocabulary and a penchant for a descriptive instead than an analytical cognitive procedure ( p. 160 ) . As antecedently evidenced the peculiar demographic of student are united due to the discourse they use, combine with this a united negative temperament towards schooling and it can be understood that willingness to talk about displacement from this demographic may be really low. If this scheme has defects, should the inquiry of lingual alteration to the course of study be raised? It seems pertinent that if every bit mentioned all have entree to a restricted lingual codification, and non all have entree to an detailed codification, that a restricted codification is the ideal lingua for learning. Complications with this posit are nevertheless instantly obvious, notably the impact on the quality of the topic cognition being transferred to the student, and the power battle that may ensue in utilizing an inferior strand of linguistic communication. Sing the quality of the teaching method, is it right to suggest for illustration, that in mathematics the word whole number which is rich and really specific in significance, elaborate in codification, be sacrificed for the possibly more accessible figure, from a restricted codification? One could anticipate benefits in pupil attending, and it could be argued that a hapless apprehension is better than no apprehension a t all. Harmonizing to Foucault ‘s rule of discontinuity ( Foucault, 1982, cited in Ball, 1990, p. 2 ) â€Å" We must do allowance for the complex and unstable powers whereby discourse can be both an instrument and an consequence of power, but besides a hinderance, a stumbling block, a point of opposition and a starting point of an opposing scheme. † To develop this, parallels to Auer ‘s account of power when utilizing foreign linguistic communications in other states can be drawn. If a restricted codification is thought of as a foreign minority linguistic communication and the elaborative codification is thought of as the local linguistic communication, a clear power construction can be established. â€Å" it may be said that in a minority linguistic communication context, the minority linguistic communication is the linguistic communication of entry and the bulk linguistic communication that of power. This macro-sociological power so infiltrates the colloquial exchange such that a talker who uses the power linguistic communication ( the bulk linguistic communication ) besides exerts interactive power over his or her co-participant ( s ) . † ( Auer, 1998, p. 236 ) Ball ( 1990 ) describes educational establishments as topographic points which control how discourse is distributed and the entree that persons have to the assorted discourses ( p. 3 ) . The thought of control clearly displays the power that schools have ; one would assume that schools would waver to destruct the barriers that discourse present to forestall the loss of high quality over their students. Hymes and Gumperz ( 1971 ) confirm that there is a discontinuity in footings of discourses that kids from lower socio-economic backgrounds face ( in Bernstein, 1971, p. 144 ) . There is an statement that a kid learns how to be educated by engagement, therefore larning to distinguish between discourses. The kid learns which is appropriate for each societal scene, larning how to believe and move and in consequence larning how to go a pupil ( Hicks, 1996, p. 105 ; Gee, 1990, p. 87 ; Wertsch, 1991 in Miller, 1992, p. 65 ) . This is farther grounds to propose that the posit has mistakes. Revoicing is a technique used by instructors which harmonizing to O'Connor and Michaels ( Hicks, 1996 ) is a â€Å" peculiar sort of reuttering ( unwritten or written ) of a pupil ‘s part – by another participant in the treatment. † ( p. 71 ) Combinations of both restricted and elaborated codification are evidenced in illustration ( 4 ) . Although the illustration is constructed, it is claimed to be a typical illustration of a schoolroom treatment. The instructor uses elaborated codification to reiterate and reenforce a statement made by the pupil, which is in restricted codification. This in consequence exposes the pupils in the schoolroom to both lingual codifications, thereby leting all students listening entree to the treatment. ( 4 ) Student: Well, I think that Smith ‘s work is truly non relevant here because she merely looked at grownups. Teacher: So you agree with Tom so, you ‘re proposing that Smith is irrelevant to the linguistic communication acquisition of immature kids? Student: Yeah. ( p. 71 ) Further analysis of the literature reveals that uncertainnesss remain with this scheme nevertheless. O'Connor and Michaels make clear that there can be an issue with student-teacher apprehension, ensuing in a dislocation in the effectivity of the technique in the lesson, saying that â€Å" If the instructor can non understand what the pupil is proposing in footings of the current undertaking, it will be really hard to integrate that part efficaciously, with or without the revoicing scheme. † ( p. 97 ) Another highlighted quandary is the desire for pupils to non experience patronised ; they understand that if students ‘ statements are invariably recognised but non linked to the academic content, it can be a cause for the pupils to go defeated due to the arch nature of the responses. ( p. 97 ) Decisions The purposes of this paper are to derive an apprehension of the function that discourses drama in schools, to recognize the links between discourse, linguistic communication and individuality, to foreground the societal justness issues that arise when some students can non entree the course of study and to suggest back uping and opposing statements for a alteration in lingual codifications in the school environment. It has been established utilizing the literature that that there are links between discourse and individuality and one of the cardinal facets of discourse is the manner one uses linguistic communication ( Gee, 1990 ) . Two types of lingual codifications are identified by Bernstein ( 1962 ) , restricted and elaborated, stand foring a lower and higher vocabulary complexness severally. It was established that some students, chiefly those from lower socio-economic backgrounds, do non hold entree to academic linguistic communication which is constructed utilizing an detailed codification, as highlighted by Gould ( 1965 ) and Hymes and Gumperz ( 1971 ) , which leads to issues of societal justness. In an effort to look into a possible solution to the jobs of discourse, an analysis of the literature by O'Connor and Michaels ( Hicks, 1996 ) was held, proposing a alteration in discourse from one of the two parties. Although there were some obvious quandaries, viz. the feeling of a loss of power by schools, an apprehension of the revoicing technique used by some instructors intimated that it is sensible to propose that entree to the linguistic communication of schools could be improved without the usage of drastic steps. Further inquiries could be raised approximately predicted power battles that could break out should the balance held with the aid of the two discourses disappear, and about the effects that discourse has on pupil-teacher dealingss. This is an of import issue as the teacher-pupil relationship has a critical impact on the behavior of students in the schoolroom. Harmonizing to Robertson ( 1985, p. 111 ) Wragg et Al. produced a brochure for usage on a instruction pattern which listed of import issues for students, one of which was personal relationships. One could oppugn if efforts to interrupt the discourse barriers would better these relationships. Possibly the most of import inquiry to reply is the consequence on the acquisition of the students, premises on this facet are made by O'Connor and Michaels ( Hicks, 1996 ) stating, â€Å" we assume here that each case of pupil engagement, fostered and scaffolded by the instructor, represents an chance for an increase of acquisition, nevertheless little. † ( p. 64 ) It is of import nevertheless that more research in this field takes topographic point ; it would be good to understand genuinely the troubles faced by both students and instructors due to the assorted discourses present in the schoolroom. A greater apprehension of the schoolroom in footings of the lingual codifications used would profit teaching method and the instruction of the course of study because as evidenced in this piece of work, without lucidity in communicating some students do non hold entree to the course of study. Tim Brighouse in a treatment with Helen Gunter had emphasised the importance of entree and societal justness in instruction. Metaphorically he explained that, every kid has the right to reject instruction but in order to reject it they must foremost hold full entree to it, saying that â€Å" Every kid has the right to reject Beethoven † ( Gunter, 2010 ) .

Ethnicity and the Immigrant Experience

Ethnicity and the Immigrant Experience When thinking about immigration, most individuals imagine all different types of ethnic groups traveling to a separate land away from their own. Most imagine America. Immigration, throughout history, has occurred within all types of ethnicities. When taking a closer look at the individuals living in America, it is apparent that everyone is not exactly like one another. Assimilation becomes a popular word used when discussing migration, and both positives and negatives come along with it.Two theorists that discuss the meaning of assimilation in their writings are Stephen Steinberg in his book, Ethnic Myth, and Milton Gordon in his book Assimilation in American Life. They discuss issues regarding assimilation and how they affect the nation as a whole. A novel written by Chang-Rae Lee titled, Native Speaker, gives specific examples as to how the assimilation process affects others and the migrants themselves, as also described in both Steinberg and Gordon’s books.In Steinberg’s book, Ethnic Myth, he discusses with his readers the issues regarding ethnic identity and assimilation. This is presented and explained in the chapter titled, The Atrophy of Ethnic Cultures. He first talks about the idea of the â€Å"melting pot† and how it should not be analyzed lightly. He gives a quote from John Higham that says, â€Å"Loud assertions of pluralism almost invariably betray fears of assimilation† (Steinberg, 59). This means that minority groups that try to maintain their cultural traditions may, in fact, risk assimilation by doing so.Another point he brings to the surface is that when looking back at second or third generations of a specific minority group, these people still can relate back to their original traditions and culture identity. He then says, â€Å"But can the same be said of the new generation which has known only the Americanized version of the original culture? † (Steinberg, 60). This is an obvious prevailing issue when it comes to preserving ones culture.An example within the novel, Native Speaker, would be when Henry, the main character described as a Korean immigrant, explains the history with his father. His father, living in America, would gather with friends and participate in ggeh’s, or â€Å"money clubs. † Here they would win money and eventually, that is all that mattered to the Korean group. The shift from typical Korean traditions to owning all this land and money in American became a vast transformation. Henry says about his father, â€Å"In America, he said, it’s even hard to stay Korean. These alterations from one ethnic experience and tradition to another can be lost very quickly and potentially never be replenished. Throughout both Steinberg and Gordon’s writing, they both have similarities and differences when regarding assimilation. Gordon talks about these â€Å"ethnic meetings† which refer to assimilation. Throughout Gordon’s chapter titled, The Nature of Assimilation, he gives a numerous amount of definitions from theorists and writers that differ in various ways.In an essay that Gordon leaves the author anonymous in this chapter defines assimilation as â€Å"the process by which different cultures, or individuals or groups representing different cultures, are merged into a homogenous unit. Here Gordon talks about assimilation as positive, whereas Steinberg takes a different approach. Steinberg suggests that assimilation is not always a positive aspect simply because it can result in the loss of a cultural identity. This is present in Native Speaker because Henry continuously tries indulging himself into American culture.He cannot fully accomplish this, which essentially results in his wife, Lelia, leaving him in the beginning of the novel. As there are differences within Steinberg and Gordon’s readings, they do agree upon their understanding of the nature within assim ilation. Gordon says that cultural behavior changes â€Å"may take place in the cultures of either one of the two groups, or there may be a reciprocal influence whereby the cultures of both groups are modified† (Gordon, 62).Steinberg agrees with this statement because he suggests that the changing of one’s culture is at high risk when incorporated into a different culture. He says, â€Å"The ethnic crisis only begins with the fact that the core elements of traditional culture have been modified, diluted, compromised, and finally relinquished† (Steinberg, 62). Both writers describe this lack of identity in one way or another. Assimilation is apparent in any society, especially America. People of different backgrounds continuously trying to come together to create one nation is a crucial aspect in society today.Steinberg, Gordon, and Lee all discuss how assimilation has issues when it comes to preserving ones ethnic traditions and identity. What they all convey to readers however, is the fact that the merging of cultures will forever be essential and inevitable. Works Cited Steinberg, Steven. The Ethnic Myth: Race, Ethnicity, and Class in America. Boston: Beacon Press, 1978. Print. Lee, Chang-Rae. Native Speaker. New York: Riverhead Books, 1995. Print. Gordon, Milton. The Nature of Assimilation. Oxford University Press, 1964. eBook.

He Cold War division of the two Koreas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

He Cold War division of the two Koreas - Essay Example Socially the division was so adverse that Korea was literally split. After this further influences like political interference from Soviet Union, after the UN had agreed to oversee the election in both frontiers. Today in DPRK communism is highly upheld by the North so that the mode of leadership revolves around a class of individuals. This is fundamental in view of global governance, Ideals and perceptions in economic and political pillars (Stefano, 15). With actions such as DPRK, a meeting was convened but Soviet Union boycotted making a consensus reached in support of the South. As a result, today the north is pointed out rejoicing in her massive and large defense system. Their concerns of the military department are highly funded by her sympathizers (Stefano, 15-18). On a global scale, the war led to militarization which has been shown greatly by the US in her invasion into the Asian continent. To date, there is a heavy military presence of the US in Asia; this has influenced political and economic standing of such regions (Stefano,

Leadership and change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 3

Leadership and change - Essay Example This helps in improving morale and performance in organisations. Major factors that contribute to employees leaving an organisation includes; the management’s lack of interest in the employee’s needs, employing autocratic leadership, not involving the employee’s in the organisation’s decision-making process, lack of recognizing employee’s skills and providing employee’s with autonomy in the work environment(Oshagbemi 2008, p.1902). While it is important for the management of an organisation to take charge in terms of leading their subordinates, showing good leadership is vital in retaining skilled and experienced workforce. Further, employee turnover rate is a pertinent issue in organisations, and it is important to look at the factors that promote low employee turnover. In this regard, the leadership behaviour adopted in organisations is one of the key factors that influence employee turnover rate in organisations. In addition, while there i s different leadership behaviours that the management of an organisation can utilize, a leadership behaviour that fosters democracy in the work environment is ideal in retaining skilled and experienced employees. In essence, changing organisational situation in regard to high employee turnover requires a participative or democratic leadership behaviour. This type of leadership places value on teamwork; however, the responsibility of the final decision-making rests with the leader of the team. This leadership is important in organisation with vibrant workforce in the sense that, it helps to improve employee’s morale. In addition, this leadership behaviour is ideal in times of change management process (Sorensen & Holman 2014, p.72). In relying on theoretical concepts and practice, this paper explores how a participative leadership behaviour can help to change high employee turnover. Concerning participative

Case study Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Case study - Research Paper Example Aims of the faculty member involve issues relating to distance, ethical considerations in practice and application of evidence based nursing professional standards in internet technology. One of the learner objectives in introducing the technology is to develop, among students, the ability to bridge distance as a barrier to nursing practice as demonstrating the technology’s application will inform students of facilitated online communication. Another learner objective of the technology’s inclusion in the course curriculum is to promote ethics in practice through exposing the students to technological application and its involved ethical environment. Inclusion of the technological application also aims at equipping students with ability to implement evidence based nursing professional standards in internet simulation strategy. Research findings by Rush et al support the ability of technology to facilitate learning and to bridge distance barrier (2008). The first learning objective, to facilitate the students’ ability to bridge distance barrier, can be evaluated through asking the students questions about what they have learnt. This evaluation can be achieved through direct questions after learning sessions or through designed questionnaires. Responses exhibits students understanding of taught concepts and are an indicator that they can apply the concepts in real life (Morris, 2011). The goal to promote professional ethics among learners can be evaluated by â€Å"direct observation† (Morris, 2011, p. 150). This method can be achieved through observing students’ demonstration of a real life application of the technology and its involved ethics (Morris, 2011). Written examinations can however be used to evaluate the objective of developing students’ ability to implement evidence based nursing professional standards in internet simulation strategy. Subjecting the students to similar

Human Genetic Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Human Genetic Diversity - Essay Example There are several stages of Meiosis. First one is prophase where homologous chromosomes start pairing and form synapses. Second stage is Metaphase where these pairs are situated on Metaphase plate. There are equal chances of receiving mother's or father's homologue for each chromosome. Independent assortment is a process where 2n daughter cells (combinations) is generated having maternal and paternal homologous pairs of chromosomes, where n being haploid number of the organism. In the case of humans, the haploid number (n) in the formula is 23. Thus, there is 223 (about 8 million) number of combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes possible. Crossing over is the process which happens in previous stage of prophase. In this process homologous chromosomes are paired together loosely along their length, resulting in generation of point of contact which is used for exchange of genetic information. This produces various combinations of maternal and paternal genes. Number of cross over events depends on size of chromosomes and position of their centromeres. In case of humans it is one to three on an average Fertilization is the process in which different gametes fuse together and form new organism of same spices.

Using a word processor of your choice, such as Word, produce a Essay

Using a word processor of your choice, such as Word, produce a 1000-1500 word report on the subject of Obesity - Essay Example As argued by Kopelman (2007), the prevalence of obesity in the United Kingdom for example and the world at large is on the rise. The statistics indicate that a huge percentage of the adults in UK are obese (Kopelman, 2007). An analysis of the future would reduce over a half of the world populace being obese (WHO, 2001). This increase in obesity is one that revolves around lifestyle and societal factors. With these alarming statistics, it is important that the entire society work collectively to ensure that the issue is resolved on a societal level. Up to date, there has been an integrated approach towards dealing with obesity, especially through mobilization on marinating a healthy diet and encouraging continuous participation in physical activity (Eggar and Swinburn, 2002). Eggar and Swinburn (2002) indicate that one of the major causes of obesity results from an individual in-taking excessive foods and drinks as they are supposed to. In the long run, this causes a lot of energy imbalance, as opposed to the daily 60 calories in a day. Some foods have been indicated to contain lots of fats and sugars, especially snacks. Persons with the habit of consuming such foods are likely to be obese (Rolls, 2007). However, it is vital to note that some individuals are likely to be obese from their biological make-up (Kopelman, 2007). On the other hand, Kopelman (2007) says that some people are less active unlike others. These persons are likely to be obese especially if they have a habit of snacking and consuming excessive fatty and sugary foods. An individual’s early life also determines the obese rate of individuals (WHO, 2001). Right from the mother’s womb to the parental feeding habits to the infants, obesity can be determined. The adult life of this child is likely to be affected, an aspect that Kopelman (2007) terms as an inter-generational constituent of obesity. Weaning is, therefore, of

Fund raising research assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Fund raising research assignment - Essay Example no volunteer system despite being known for its charitable and volunteer work while the University of Cincinnati does not list volunteers as directly assisting in fund raising on their websites, but they were highlighted in foundation advertisement on other sites like Facebook and Youtube. The University of Oregon does not offer member benefits online like the University of Cincinnati does, where donors get free parking, library privileges discounts on university bookstore, recognition at annual Honor Roll of Donors, complimentary classes, and special invitation to special events. The Michigan State University is so different from both the University of Oregon and Cincinnati though the former has a gift level system, too. The annual gifts of Michigan State University are presidents club, Beaumont Tower Society, John A. Hannah Society, Jonathan L. Snyder society and Theophilus C. Abbot Society. Michigan state university is different from the other two universities since volunteers are the main contributors to their fund-raising, and the institution has a calling program run by volunteers. This program is important since it is a student led voice, and it is used to build strong relationships with alumni. On top of that, Michigan State University organizes events which supplement their annual fund-raising: Broad Art Museum event, Secchia Center event and Corporate Alumni event. There is a big gap between a university and a high school in terms of resources. In that regard, there was a big difference between the high school I researched and the research on the three universities. I believe that the high school could largely benefit from implementing some of the procedures that these universities have. Some of the programs this high school will have to implement include building a school website. The website will enable the alumni to get more information about what the schooling is aiming to achieve, reminisce and stay connected to the community and the high school.

Unit 2 Application Assignment - Management Research Paper

Unit 2 Application Assignment - Management - Research Paper Example The companys large workforce is of major benefit to the company. Their management enables the organization to maximize their innovativeness, bettering the products in the market, which in turn maximizes the returns of the company. Asus’ mission statement is brief and elaborate, making it easily understandable to the stakeholders, precisely workers, for maximum productivity. The company majors on innovation as the key strategy towards the achievement of the company’s objective. The company’s vision is to be a 3C (communications, computers, and consumer electronics) solution provider. The solutions aim at simplifying the lives of consumers, easing life for the realization of maximum potential. Asus’ slogan for maximum productivity is â€Å"In search of incredible† and the previous one was â€Å"Inspiring innovation and persistent perfection.† The company’s mission is the provision of IT solutions for empowerment of the world for maximum potential realization. The mission and company’s vision have been the backbone towards the innovativeness, profitability, and product diversification to over 16 product lines (Witcher & Chau, 2010). Among the company’s strategic goals is to cherish workers, nurture, cultivate, and care for them to realize their full potential for maximum productivity. It also aims to remain persistently as a top ranking company in terms of quality and innovativeness, alongside leading in green technology provision. Finally, the company also aims to contribute more to the society. Among the company’s societal initiatives is environmental protection, philanthropy, arts and culture, and gender equality (women power). Such activities include the donation of 15 science libraries in Chongqing Municipality in July 2008. An act of environmental protection is the issue of environmentally friendly bags on purchase of Asus products (Witcher & Chau, 2010). Management is a vital area for the achievement of the set objectives in the

The Innovation of Prosthetics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Innovation of Prosthetics - Essay Example That is, the innovation in the development of prosthetics is aimed at giving the amputee more control and feel over the device which makes him feel that it is as good as a natural body part. The whole evolution of prosthetics over the centuries is driven by the desire for improving the artificial devices’ anthropomorphism (Pitkin, 2009). Anthropomorphism can be best defined as the expressing of human motivations and feelings in non-human entities (Clark, 2011). In this case, it is to allow the prosthetic to serve as an equivalent to the natural body part doing all activities and functions that could have been performed with the natural body part. This report looks into the innovation in the field of prosthetics. It discusses the evolution of prosthetics over the centuries. The expected future developments in the field are also discussed along with initiatives taken to increase the awareness among people. Evolution of Prosthetics Prosthetics has evolved from its primitive form to today’s highly sophisticated form over the centuries. There have been numerous ideas and innovations that have been introduced in the field of prosthetics. Some of them have been very successful and they have been expanded new forms and design. Fixed-position foot is an example of a successful innovation. On the other hand, some of them have not worked out as anticipated and have been sidelined. The use of iron in prosthetics is an example of a poor innovation that did not work out. The very first prosthetics were the peg legs and hand hooks that were designed in and around 400 BC. These prosthetics have evolved over the years and lead to more advanced and sophisticated fittings and castings. Today’s prosthetics are highly individualised to meet the specific needs of the person (Norton, 2007). The earliest of prosthetics rather than function mainly served the purpose of wholeness. They were made fibres. The next step in the innovation of prosthetics was the use iron and bronze. The core of the prosthetics consisted of wooden and the exterior was made of bronze and iron. Slowly the dimension of purpose was introduced (Norton, 2007). The purpose was still trivial such as to enable the amputee to walk, hold shields in the battle, etc. The prosthetics served only one purpose and was not very effective and there was very little attention paid to function. Prosthetics were used mainly in battles for soldiers and only the rich and famous in the society could use hand hooks and peg legs for daily functions. The next step in the evolution was the better designs and the use of gears and springs. The designing was boosted by the contribution from people of various trades. Watchmakers played an important role in the introduction of gears and springs in the prosthetics. This gave a new dimension to prosthetics as they were added with specific intricate internal functions. The period of renaissance saw a rebirth of innovation in prosthetics. The mew materia ls such as copper, steel, iron along with wood were used in the making of prosthetics (Norton, 2007). Prosthetics were now designed with the intent to make it more easy and multifunctional. People now started using prosthetics to perform activities such as signing the name, opening the purse, removing the purse, etc. Engineering features started to become a integral of prosthetics. Engineering features that made into the design of prosthetics were fixed positions, harness that could be adjusted, mechanisms that could control knee lock, etc.

Nelson mandela Essay Example for Free

Nelson mandela Essay in India, discriminatory attitudes towards men and women have existed for generations and affect the lives of both genders. Although the constitution of India has granted men and women equal rights, gender disparity still remains. There are limited opportunities for women in sectors which traditionally demand for men to participate, such as armed forces. Although women also have mostly off-front job opportunities within the army. There is specific research on gender discrimination mostly in favour of men over women. Due to a lack of objective research on gender discrimination against men, it is perceived that it is only women who are suffering. The research often conducted is selectively sampled, where men are left out of the picture.[1] Women are perceived to be disadvantaged at work, and conclusions are drawn that their capabilities are often underestimated. Discrimination towards Women Infancy to childhood Both women and men are important for reproduction. Sex is very important between a male and a female to ensure continuity of human species on the earth. The cultural construct of Indian society which reinforces gender bias against men and women, with varying degrees and variable contexts against the opposite sex,[3] has led to the continuation of India’s strong preference for male children. Female infanticide, a sex-selective abortion, is adopted and strongly reflects the low status of Indian women. Census 2011 shows decline of girl population (as a percentage to total population) under the age of seven, with activists estimating that eight million female fetuses may have been aborted in the past decade.[4] The 2005 census shows infant mortality figures for females and males are 61 and 56, respectively, out of 1000 live births,[5] with females more likely to be aborted than males due to biased attitudes. A decline in the sex ratio was observed with India’s 2011 census reporting that it stands at 914 females against 1,000 males, dropping from 927 in 2001 the lowest since India’s independence.[6] The demand for sons among wealthy parents is being satisfied by the medical community through the provision of illegal service of fetal sex-determination and sex-selective abortion. The financial incentive for physicians to undertake this illegal activity seems to be far greater than the penalties associated with breaking the law.[7] Childhood to adulthood and education Education is not widely attained by Indian women. Although literacy rates are increasing, female literacy rate lags behind the male literacy rate. Literacy Rate Census of India 2001 and 2011 Comparison Literacy for females stands at 65.46%, compared to 82.14% for males.[8] An underlying factor for such low literacy rates are parents perceptions that education for girls are a waste of resources as their daughters would eventually live with their husbands families and they will not benefit directly from the education investment.[9] Adulthood and onwards Discrimination against women has contributed to gender wage differentials, with Indian women on average earning 64% of what their male counterparts earn for the same occupation and level of qualification.[10] Discrimination against women has led to their lack of autonomy and authority. Although equal rights are given to women, egality may not be well implemented. In practice, land and property rights are weakly enforced, with customary laws widely practised in rural areas. Women do not own property under their own names and usually do not have any inheritance rights to obtain a share of parental property.[1] D

Influence Of Positivism Interpretivism And Realism Approaches Psychology Essay

Influence Of Positivism Interpretivism And Realism Approaches Psychology Essay All sociological research designs and methods make certain assumptions about the nature of the social world and how knowledge is generated. One of the ways that research can be evaluated and improved is to make these assumptions more explicit (Hibberd, 2005). Positivism, interpretivism and realism give different answers to the nature of scientific knowledge and whether or not it is applicable to societies. Many scholars argue that a great deal of sociological research contains elements of all three (Suppe, 1984; Bickhard, 1992; Hibberd, 2010). To a far extent these arguments have influenced the methodological division of social research. It is claimed that, the quantitative methods have their intellectual underpinning in the positivist and realist paradigms, while the qualitative methods/techniques have their intellectual underpinning in interpretativist, constructivist, and naturalist paradigms (Hanzel, 2010). However, despite these ongoing arguments between the methodological traditions of qualitative and quantitative research (Gage, 1989); combined methods represent a fast developing field of social science methodology. As all methods have specific margins and particular strengths, many discussants propose that qualitative and quantitative methods should be combined in order to compensate for their mutual weaknesses (Tashakkori Teddlie, 2003). Moreover, it is claimed that this movement scripts the beginning of a new era in social research indicated by a tendency to combine quantitative and qualitative methods pragmatically unencumbered by old debates (Johnson Turner, 2003). Therefore it is emphasized that the uses of a mixed-method design provides an important tool in overcoming the limitations of both qualitative and quantitative mono-method research. This essay deals with social theories that influence qualitative and qualitative research methods employed in social sciences as either in principle separable or even as irreconcilable methods of social sciences. It starts with a characterization of positivism, Interpretivism and realism; and links these theories to the foundation of qualitative and quantitative research methods. Then, it shows how they deal with the various aspects of the qualitative-quantitative divide. Finally, it is the intention to show how the combined methodological approach may be integrated in a coherent way to add value and assist in the design of a single research project. With an emphasis on the differences and similarities between quantitative and qualitative approaches providing the basis for exploring the methods of combining both approaches to overcome their weaknesses by providing a commentary of the complementary strengths of each tradition. Characterizing Positivism, Interpretivism and Realism approaches Few sociologists would describe themselves as a positivist, interpretivist or realist. These are terms used primarily by methodologists and social theorists to describe and evaluate the theoretical assumptions underlying different approaches to research (Bickhard, 1992; Johnson, 2006; Hibberd, 2010). There are many different views in sociology about what societies are and the best ways of obtaining knowledge of them. This part of the essay simplifies matters to some extent by characterizing three of the most influential theories of knowledge in sociology: positivism, interpretivism and realism (Bryman, 1998 and 2001; Hibberd 2010). Positivism Positivism is frequently used to stand for the epistemological assumption that empirical knowledge based on principles of objectivity, verificationism, and reproducibility is the foundation of all authentic knowledge (Bryman, 2001; Hanzel, 2010). The term positivist has been critical for some time in the human sciences because positivist tends to subscribe to a number of ideas that have no place in present-day science and philosophy (Hanzel, 2010). Positivism views that sociology can and should use the methods of the natural sciences, that do not usually mean using experiments because there are all sorts of ethical problems with doing that, but positivists do believe that sociologists should use quantitative methods and aim to identify and measure social structures. As a philosophical approach, positivism encompasses a group of notions. Table 1 below, provides main characters for positivist key ideas. It shows that positivists sum up all the items by being against metaphysics (Hackin g, 1983). Character Description emphasis upon verification Significant propositions are those whose truth or falsehood can be settled in some way. Pro-observation What we can see, feel, touch, and the like provide the best content or foundation for all the rest of our non mathematical knowledge. Discoverability Scientific knowledge is something discovered (rather than produced or constructed). Anti-cause There is no causality in nature, over and above the constancy with which events of one kind are followed by events of another kind. Downplaying explanation Explanation may help organize phenomena, but do not provide any deeper answer to Why questions except to say that the phenomena regularly occur in such and such a way. Anti-theoretical entities Positivists tend to be non-realists, not only because they restrict reality to the observable but also because they are against causes and are dubious about explanations. Table 1: Positivism characters Source: Hacking, 1983 Positivist theory argues that the methods of the natural sciences are applicable to the study of societies. In the positivist view, sociology involves the search for causal relationships between observable phenomena and theories are tested against observations (Hibberd, 2009). Researchers adopting a positivist point of view may still be interested in finding out about peoples subjective views. For example, they explore things such as attitudes and opinions through survey research (Michell, 2003). However, they see the task of sociology as explaining why people behave in the way they do, and how people really feel about things cannot be explained scientifically. Interpretivist Interpretivists do not necessarily reject the positivist account of knowledge, but they question the idea that the logic and methods of natural science can be imported into the study of societies. Max Weber was one of the main influences on the interpretivist tradition in sociology. For him, natural science and social science are two very different enterprises requiring a different logic and different methods (Bryman, 1982). At the heart of interpretivist critique of positivism is a humanist viewpoint. Some of those favouring an interpretivist view of sociology have long argued that in their search for a scientific explanation of social life, positivist have sometimes forgotten that they are studying people, and to study people you need to get out and explore how they really think and act in everyday situations. Interpretivists argue that unlike objects in nature, human beings can change their behaviour if they know they are being observed (Collins, 1984; Guba, 1987). So, interpretivists argue that if we want to understand social action, we need to look into the reasons and meanings which that action has for people (Marsh, 2002). Take the example of crime, a positivist would argue that researchers can simply measure crime using quantitative methods and identify patterns and correlations.   While, an interpretivist would argue that we need to understand what people mean by crime, how they come to catego rize certain actions as criminal and then investigate who comes to be seen as criminal in a particular society . The aim of interpretivist approaches in sociology is to understand the subjective experiences of those being studied, how they think and feel and how they act in their natural contexts (Marsh, 2002; Johnson, 2006). Therefore, although interpretivists still try to be objective and systematic in their research, the key criterion in interpretivist epistemology is validity. The favoured research design is ethnography and the main methods are ones that help researchers understand social life from the point of view of those being studied, such as unstructured observation, unstructured interviews and personal documents. Interpretivism has provided a powerful critique of many of the taken-for-granted ideas of positivism that are widely used in sociology and in other social sciences (Marsh, 2002). It has also influenced a whole field of research illuminating peoples everyday life experiences. However, interpretivists accounts are criticised by some sociologists for not providing testable hypotheses that can be evaluated. This can lead to relativism where one theory, or study, is seen as just as good as any other. Realism Realist theory, like positivism, holds that sociology can, and should, follow the logic and methods of the natural sciences, meanwhile, it differs from positivism in its interpretation of science (Hartwig, 2007; Hibberd, 2010). In positivist research, theories are tested against observations and found to be true or false or somewhere in between. In simple terms, the facts are the judge of the theory (Hibberd, 2010). Realists do not make this clear-cut separation because they do not believe that observations can be separated from theories (Parker, 2003; Hartwig, 2007). They argue that no form of science relies exclusively on observable empirical evidence. There are always aspects of any form of reality that remain hidden beneath the surface of what can be observed (Duran, 2005; Hibberd, 2010). According to realists, the aim of scientific work is to uncover the underlying causal mechanisms that bring about observable regularities. Realists see research being guided primarily by scientific criteria, such as the systematic collection of evidence, reliability and transparency. However, because they recognise the importance of the subjective dimension of human action, they also include methods that document the validity of peoples experiences (Bhaskar, 1999). Research designs are more likely to be experimental or comparative in realist research, but there is no particular commitment to either quantitative or qualitative methods (Parker, 2003; Hartwig 2007).The focus of realist methodology, however, is on theory. Realists argue that as there is no such thing as theory-free data: sociological methods should be specifically focused on the evaluation and comparison of theoretical concepts, explanations and policies. The development of a clear, realist epistemology is comparatively recent in sociology and owes much to new realist writers like Bhaskar (1986, 1999) and Pawson (1989). They have provided a different interpretation of science and its relationship to social sciences, and a developing alternative to the dominant theories of positivism and Interpretivism that laid the foundations for a non-empiricist epistemology in social science (Hibberd, 2009 and 2010). However, they would say that this doesnt mean that either set of methods, positivist or interpretive, have to be ditched. The realists argument is that sociologists can be pragmatic and use whatever methods are appropriate for particular circumstances. Social reality is complex and to study it, sociologists can draw on both positivist and interpretivist methods. However, realism is also criticised for exaggerating the dependence of science and social science on theory, and realist epistemology offers, at best, very limited truths about the social world. Many studies in sociology use a combination of positivist, interpretivist and, more recently, realist ideas, just as they use different research methods. The three theories are very general descriptive terms and there are many different theoretical approaches within the general framework of each one. Table 2 shows different research methods associated with each theory. Theory Research design Research methods Positivism Social surveys Structural interviews Experimental Structural observations Comparative Official statistics Interpretivism Ethnography Participant observation Unstructured interviews Personal documents Realism Experimental Non-specific, but methods are theory-focused Comparative Table 2: Theory, Design and methods Source: Bryman, 2001 Conflict of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Paradigms The quantitative methods have their rational foundation in the positivist and realist paradigms, while the qualitative methods have their rational foundation in interpretativist, constructivist, and naturalist paradigms. The opposition between these paradigms was succinctly characterized by Guba as follows: The one precludes the other just as surely as belief in a round world precludes believing in a flat one (Guba 1987, 31). The opposition between these paradigms is then expressed as shown below in table 3 (Lincoln and Guba 1985). Axioms About Positivist Paradigm Naturalist Paradigm The nature of reality Reality is single, tangible, and fragmentable. Realities are multiple, constructed, and holistic. The relationship of the knower to the known Knower and known are independent, a dualism. Knower and known are interactive, inseparable. The possibility of generalization Time- and context-free generalizations (nomothetic statements) are possible. Only time- and context-bound working hypotheses (idiographic statements) are possible. The possibility of causal linkages There are real causes, temporally precedent or simultaneous with their effects. All entities are in a state of mutual simultaneous shaping, so that it is impossible to distinguish causes from effects. The role of values Inquiry is value-free. Inquiry is value-bound. Table 3: Contrasting of Positivists and Naturalists Paradigms, Source: Amended from (Hanzel, 2010; Lincoln and Guba 1985) Consequently, it is commonly claimed that quantitative research is based on positivistic assumptions, whereas the qualitative approach is grounded on anti-positivistic positions (Lincoln Guba, 1985; Lund, 2005). Several researchers and academics (Creswell, 1995; Gall Borg, 1996; Ryan Bernard, 2000) have given additional explanations to both methods; they are asserting that quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships within the social sciences. Thus, the objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to social phenomena. The process of numerical measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Qualitative research is distinctive by nature in aiming to collect detailed accounts investigating into the understanding of human behaviour. The qualitative researcher assumes that flexibility in human behaviour is socially constructed, as so, seeks to reason and analyses factors that govern such behaviour; in doing so the qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just the quantifiable what, where or when occurrences. Similarly, Jana Plichtovà ¡ (2002) claims that the differences between the quantitative and qualitative research methods are based on a paradigmatically different understanding of the subject matter of and the sense of cognition in the social sciences, that is: The quantitative approach starts from the premise that we can arrive at trustworthy knowledge only if the human being is reduced to a set of measurable variables between which we can presuppose the relations of causation. It sees the sense of cognition in prediction and control of human behaviour. While, the qualitative approach does not agree with that reduction because it degrades the human being to a reacting mechanism, It proposes such research strategies which respect the fact that the human being is an acting being pursuing certain intentions, creating and understanding meanings, and that it is a socio-cultural being whose adaptation has a mediated and social charac ­ter (Plichtovà ¡, 2002). Moreover, Gall et al. (1996, cited Lund, 2005) presents key differences between quantitative and qualitative research approaches. Part of the difference refers to what researchers assume, the other part focuses on the truth of these assumptions, irrespectively of whether or not they are adopted by researchers. Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2005) have other classifications to the differences between both methods; they argue that the quantitative-qualitative paradigm conflict has resulted in the evolution of three major schools of thought, namely: purists, situationalists and pragmatists. The difference between these three perceptions relates to the extent to which each believes that quantitative and qualitative approaches can co-exist and be combined (Bryman, 1984). These three camps can be understood as purists and pragmatists exist on opposite ends, while situationalists are somewhere in the middle. The following account focuses on Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2005) perspective. For purists, the assumptions associated with quantitative and qualitative paradigms regarding how the world is viewed and what it is important to know are irreconcilable. They envisage that both methods stem from different metaphysical and epistemological assumptions about the nature of research (Bryman, 1984; Collins, 1984; Tashakkori Teddlie, 1998). Purists advocate that the methods and tenets from positivism and post-positivism cannot and should not be mixed (Smith, 1983). They believe that the axioms of post-positivism and positivism have mutually exclusive assumptions about society; therefore, the research methods derived under each are considered to be mutually exclusive as well In agreement with purists and acceptance of both positivist and post positivist paradigms, situationalists maintain that qualitative and quantitative methods are complementary but should not be integrated in a single study. However, they believe that definite research questions relate more to quantitative approaches, whereas other research questions are more suitable for qualitative methods (Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005). Thus, although representing very different directions, the two approaches are treated as being complementary. By contrast, pragmatists, unlike purists and situationalists, contend that a false separation exists between quantitative and qualitative approaches (Newman Benz, 1998). They advocate the integration of methods within a single study. Sieber (1973) articulated that because both approaches have intrinsic strengths and weaknesses, researchers should utilize the strengths of both techniques in order to understand better social phenomena. Indeed, pragmatists assign to the philosophy that the research question should drive the methods used (Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005). In any case, researchers who ascribe to epistemological purity disregard the fact that research methodologies are merely tools that are designed to aid our understanding of the world. Table 4 presents a summary of the qualitative-quantitative divide, understood as a clash of paradigms, each characterized by the characteristics shown in the table (Reichardt and Cook 1979). Here the divide is approached by means of a possible link between the respective method and the attributes of a paradigm. Another characterization of the nature of the qualitative-quantitative divide is presented by A. Bryman, as shown in table 5 (Bryman 1988, 94). Qualitative Paradigm Quantitative Paradigm Advocates the use of qualitative methods Advocates the use of quantitative methods Phenomenology concerned with understanding human behavior from the actors own frame of reference Logical-positivism; seeks the facts or causes of social phenomena with little regard for the subjective states of individuals Naturalistic and uncontrolled observation Obtrusive and controlled measurement Subjective Objective Grounded, discovery-oriented, exploratory, expansionist, descriptive, and inductive Ungrounded, verification-oriented, confirmatory, reductionist, inferential, and hypothetico-deductive Process-oriented Outcome-oriented Valid; real, rich, and deep data Reliable; hard and replicable data Ungeneralizable; single case studies Generalizable; multiple case studies Holistic Particularistic Assumes a dynamic reality Assumes a stable reality Table 4: Reichardt and Cook on Attributes of the Qualitative and Quantitative Paradigms Source: Amended from (Hanzel,2010) Based on such characterizations of the differences between qualitative and quantitative research, the issue of the qualitative-quantitative divide in social sciences could be approached from two points of view. The first, mod ­erate, according to which one deals only with two different sets of techniques that can be, if required, mutually combined; and the second, radical, accord ­ing to which the divide and the respective techniques/methods are rooted in paradigmatically opposed epistemologies and, thus, the respective methods/techniques cannot be combined.   Aspect Quantitative Research Qualitative Research Role of qualitative research Preparatory Means to exploration of actors interpretations Relationship between researcher and subject Distant Close Researchers stance in relation to subject Outsider Insider Relationship between theory/concept and research Confirmation Emergent Research strategy Structured Unstructured Scope of findings Nomothetic Ideographic Image of social reality Static and external to actor Processual and socially constructed by actor Nature of data Hard, reliable Rich, deep Table 5: Bryman on Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Source: Amended from (Hanzel,2010) Similarities between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Approaches It is possible to argue that there are overwhelmingly more similarities between quantitative and qualitative approaches than there are differences (Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005). Bothe and Andreatta (2004), add that both approaches involve the use of observations to address research questions, describe their data, construct descriptive arguments from their data, and speculate about why the results they observed happened as they did. Both sets of researchers select and use analytical techniques that are designed to obtain the maximal meaning from their data, and so that findings have utility in relation to their respective views of reality (Kelle, 2006). Both methods investigators utilize techniques to verify their data. Such techniques include persistent observation with continuous and prolonged investigation of the research study with consideration to rival explanations. Replication of the chosen study method to other cases (of which may include extreme scenarios) provides the opportunity to gain validity of findings and the methodological approach used, by means of a representative study group to allow for reliable generalisations to be made. Triangulation, verification of researcher effects and weighting of the evidence identifies and resolves researcher bias and thick description (Creswell, 1998, cited Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005) which may impact on the findings. Debriefing of study participants may obtain valuable feedback from participants also. Moreover, quantitative and qualitative researches represent an interactive range and the role of theory is central for both paradigms. Specifically, in qualitative research the most common purposes are those of theory initiation and theory building, whereas in quantitative research the most typical objectives are those of theory testing and theory modification (Newman Benz, 1998). Clearly, neither tradition is independent of the other, nor can either school encompass the whole research process. Thus, both quantitative and qualitative research techniques are needed to gain a more complete understanding of phenomena (Newman Benz, 1998). Hence, there are many parallels exist between quantitative and qualitative research. Indeed, the purity of a research paradigm is a function of the extent to which the researcher is prepared to conform to its underlying assumptions (Luttrell, Wendy, 2005).This suggests that methodological pluralism (Larsson, 2009) should be promoted, the best way for this to occur is for as many investigators as possible to become pragmatic researchers (Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005). Combined research methods and function in the research process A combination of qualitative and quantitative research approaches can assist in practical solutions to overcome limitations of mono-method research discussed for the last 50 years (Kelle, 2006). However, it is rarely addressed in current debates whether it is possible to develop solid methodological strategies for structuring research methods based on that insight of combining qualitative and quantitative methods (Creswell et al., 2003; Tashakkori Teddlie, 2003; Onwuegbuzie Leech, 2005), though there is a broad agreement that a use of multiple methods with complementary strengths and different weaknesses can add value to a single research. Despite this, the discussion provides only sparse information about which designs could overcome which weaknesses of mono-method research. Furthermore, there is still a lack of agreement about the exact classification and terminology of different mixed methods, combined method or multi-method designs which are used in research practice (Tashakkor i Teddlie, 2003, cited Onwuegbuzie Leech, 2005, p:307 ). By starting the research process with a qualitative study, researchers may obtain access to knowledge that helps them to develop the appropriate theoretical concepts and to construct consistent research instruments later on that cover relevant phenomena by consequential and relevant items. Such a design helps to overcome the limited transferability of findings from qualitative research as well as the initially mentioned hazards of the heuristics of commonsense knowledge (Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005, p: 307). This approach can help to construct consistent research instruments that cover relevant phenomena by consequential and relevant substances. Meanwhile, combining qualitative and quantitative methods the opposite way could be useful in many cases; that means starting with a quantitative study, followed by qualitative questions (Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005; Lund 2005). In this quantitative-qualitative approach, problem areas and research questions are identified by carrying out a quantitative study which will have to be further investigated with the help of qualitative data and methods. The problem of quantitative research addressed by this design is often the difficulty to understand statistical findings without additional socio cultural knowledge. Furthermore, the quantitative part of a sequential quantitative-qualitative design can guide systematic case comparison in the following qualitative inquiry by helping to identify criteria for the selection of cases and by providing a sampling frame (Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005; Kelle, 2006). Thus, this design can help to overcome an important threat of validity existing in qualitative research that researchers focus on distant and marginal cases. Another problem of qualitative research can be addressed by this design: it helps to avoid a qualitative study with an outsized scope that covers a domain too wide to be captured with the help of a small qualitative sample. Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2005) give a simple example to understand the above problem: a qualitative study of family life in a contemporary city would have to take into account many more different forms of families than a similar study in a traditional rural community in the first decades of the twentieth century. By drawin g on statistical material about the distribution of different family forms, the minimum requirements for qualitative sampling could be easily captured, and may be well advised to downsize the research question and research domain (Bryman, 2001; Onwuegbuzie and Leech, 2005). On the other hand, a parallel qualitative-quantitative design can fulfil similar functions to a sequential design: the qualitative part of the study can provide information that helps to understand statistical relations, to develop explanations and to identify additional variables that increase variance already explained in the quantitative data. A great benefit of a parallel qualitative-quantitative design is that it helps to identify measurement problems and methodological artefact of both qualitative and quantitative data, as the same persons are interviewed with different techniques (Bryman, 1992 and 2001). However, this parallel design approach encloses an important disadvantage, it is that qualitative sampling and data collection cannot be systematically developed from research questions derived from quantitative data; therefore it can easily be the case that the available qualitative data provide no answers for questions coming from the quantitative study, as they were not col lected for that purpose. Conclusion It is shown throughout this essay that the theoretical approach influences the methodological approach and vice versa. Many studies in sociology use a combination of positivist, interpretivist and, realist ideas. The essay demonstrates that the influence of positivism has inspired much of social research most prevalent research methods. Some of these include surveys, questionnaires and statistical models. Researchers applying a positivist methodology for their study consider large-scale sample surveys and controlled laboratory experiments as suitable research methods. These methods can be justified as they allow positivist researchers to employ empirical and logical quantitative data. While, interpretivism employs qualitative methods to understand people, not to measure them, it attempts to capture reality in interaction, however, does not necessarily exclude quantitative methods. Whereas, quantitative results from a positivist method like a survey are unlikely to provide understandi ng of this deeper reality and therefore should not be a major part of any realism research project, basically, because realism research data are almost always qualitative data about meanings. The essay provides several benefits of performing mixed method research. Researchers of social science use a wide variety of research methods to gain and enhance knowledge and theory. The different types of research methodologies, quantitative and qualitative, are associated with the epistemological and theoretical perspectives the researcher wishes to adopt. The essay demonstrated that quantitative and qualitative methods can fulfil different, yet, complementary purposes within mixed-method designs. Quantitative methods can give an overview ab

Critically Analyze The Role Of Leadership Management Essay

Critically Analyze The Role Of Leadership Management Essay Leadership is very important to organizations especially to management perspective, to manage well the leadership could help company to achieving successful business. In the high competitive environment in nowadays, in order to have successful management of organization, organizations need to know the importance of leadership and the role of leadership in achieving sustainable organizational change. Leader is a person who in charge or as a change agent could manage an organization or use his ability to make the process of organizational change more effectively and successfully. Organizational change is a demand of the day and it is the needed power for organizations to survive in todays competitive environment. In nowadays, organizations are well understand the signification of the matter, and are serious to prepare themselves both in the existing and future trends to get the level of sustainable success, but its very complex and challenging for organizations to achieve the process o f organizational change. Due to leadership has a central role in evolution and cultivating an organization, thus, a very effective and highly competent leadership that is well competent to understand the most desirable shape of an organization and undertake the issue of organizational change in most appropriate way is high demanded in the process of organizational change. The analysis of literature reviewed was highly recommended two approaches of leadership in the demand of the process of organizational change which are visionary leadership and charismatic leadership. The main purpose of this research paper is to evaluate the role of leadership in achieving sustainable organizational change, the importance of organizational change and use the selected two approaches of leadership to evaluate how the leadership works in the Apple Inc, and how do these two leaderships could affect the organizations. 2.0 Literature Review 2.1 The leadership and its importance Refers to Berger and Luckmann, 1966, leadership like other social phenomena, is socially constructed through interaction, emerging as a result of the constructions and actions of both leaders and led. Research done by Kristina, 2009, leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. Additional research which has done by Sansom, 1998, the leadership of an organization is instead, an ability of management to get and protect the company benefits by realizing employees need and company targets and bringing them to work in a better environment to achieve the common goals. After knowing the definition of leadership, author going to discuss on the importance of leadership in organizations. Refers to the research done by Chris, 2010, organizations are built on leadership and when there is good leadership in place, a company will succeed in all activities that it undertakes, retains employees and experiences growth. In fact, no company or organization can survive and thrive in the lack of efficient organizational leadership. One of the key elements in organizational leadership is maintain a delicate balance between understanding employee needs and organizational goals. An organization with the right leadership elements will have employees whose are satisfied with working in the organization and who feel that their work has contributed to organization growth. It must treat its employees as the most vital part of the entire system and instead of just a workforce it must treat them like assets. Leadership is very important to organization because it helps es tablishing direction to organization, developing a vision of the future, often the distant future, and strategies for producing the changes needed to achieve that vision, and leadership could help organization in aligning people, to communicating the direction by words and deeds to all those whose cooperation may be needed so as to influence the creation of teams and coalitions that understand the vision and strategies, and accept their validity (Barbara and Stephen, 2010). In the case study, the leadership of Steve Jobs built Apple Inc to the worlds most valuable company in 2011. Refers to Case study, the company started off as Apple Computer, best known for its Macintosh personal computers (PCs) in the 1980s and 1990s, despite a strong brand, rapid growth, and high profits in the late 1980s, Apple almost went bankrupt in 1996. Then Jobs went to work, transforming Apple Computer into Apple Inc with innovation non-PC products starting in the early 2000s. In fact, by 2010, the company viewed itself as a mobile device company, in the 2009 fiscal year, sales related to the iPhone and the iPod represented nearly 60% of Apples total sales of $43 billion. Apple Inc could not have todays successful without the good leadership of Jobs; he controlled and managed the company well to lead company achieving high revenue every year. Steve Jobs leaded his employees went out to the limitation of the normal PC industry, to focus on the different high technology product s in the related area, the innovation power which Jobs built still has high market position for Apple Inc today. 2.2 Role of leadership in organizational change Effective leadership is always required to bring effective changes (Kennedy, 2000). Successful organizational change depends on leaders who has direct authority with people going through the change-to support and execute change in their span of influence. Refers to Reardon, 1998, radical changes require private acceptance and it is a role of senior leaders to aware people to realize the need of change and therefore to create willingness to relinquish old style of working in favor of new ones. Another researcher Kotter, 1995, said that the effective leaders have clear and straight vision about future and the successful change needs to have a clear picture of future, without vision the successful changes are very difficult, thus, it is very important for the leaders to communicate the vision. Drucker, 1995 regards leaders in an organization as the life-giving elements in every organization in that without managers, organizations cannot possibly function properly without good leadership . Thus, a strong link is noted between a leaders efficiency and organization performance. Another additional research done by Wasim and Imran, 2010, the organizational leadership has a central role in evolution and cultivating an organization, it can help the member of an organization and working teams to face the challenges and to work for organizational goal in a worthy way. Steve Jobs plays an important role of the leadership in Apples organizational change, he leads Apple went out from the almost decline situation to such successful IT company today. Follow Steve Jobs back to Apple, in August 1997, Apple announced that Microsoft would invest $150 million in Apple and make a five-year commitment to develop core products, such as Microsoft Office, for the Mac Jobs abruptly halted the Macintosh licensing program. Apples 15 product lines were slashed to just four categories-desktop and portable Macintoshes, for consumers and professionals. Other restructuring efforts involved hiring Taiwanese contract assemblers to manufacture Mac products and revamping Apples distribution system from smaller outlets to national chains. Internally, Jobs focused on reinvigorate innovation, and Apple pared down its inventory significantly and increased its spending on RD. Refers to the research done by Kennedy, 2000, effective leadership is always required to bring effective changes, Jobs has the full authority with staffs and outsiders in the ongoing processes during the organizational change. According to another research done by Kennedy, 2000, effective leaders should have clear vision for the future development of organization, for example, Jobs laid out his vision for the Macintosh in what he called the digital hub in 2001, in which could attract these customers who entrenched in a digital lifestyle such as using digital cameras, portable music players and digital camcorders, and Jobs believed that Apples control of both hardware and software could be one of the unique strength for Macintosh to manage all these digital things. Because of the great leadership of Jobs, 91% of PCs priced $1,000 and above in the US market were sold by Apple (Case study). Therefore, the leadership plays an important role in the organizational change, and the effective leadership could bring company with effective organizational change and increase revenue. 2.3 The evaluation of organizational change 2.3.1 The importance of organizational change Organizational change is defined as the adaptation of new ideas or behavior by an organization with many perspectives on strategic change and organization development (Halkos and Bousinakis, 2012). The role of the manager or a team of leaders is crucial for the change. Those changes range both from technological to structural change and from psychological transitioning to organization downsizing (Choi, 1995). Organizational changes including both operational and transformational change. Refers to Liberatore et al, 2000, transformational change involves redesign and renewal of the organization often not made by the effort of a management science modeling. Organization change occurs in many forms, such as introduction of new technologies, new products, new process of administrative systems or any procedure new to an organization (Baker and Wruck, 1989; Zhou et al, 2006). Nowadays business trends are changing rapidly and quickly in the globe and the organizations that do not change cannot survive (Hage, 1999). In the high competitive environment of todays business, organizations are facing both internal and external pressure that they must make changes in order to success in the industry. It is also very important for the organization to manage the demands and expectations of the customers, employees and management; therefore, there is always a need for change to meet these expectations (Wasim and Imran, 2010). 2.3.2 The organizational change of Apple Inc According to Hage, 1999, organizational changes mean that organizations are undergoing and or undergone transformation, it may be define their success story or any type of experience or failure, the organizational change is the set of different actions that results shifting in directions and or processes that affect the way in which organizations work before. Some research paper wrote that organizational change cannot be separated from organizational strategy, or vice versa (Burnes, 2004; Rieley and Clarkson, 2001). Researcher Graetz, 2000, also suggested that against a backdrop of increasing globalization, deregulation, the rapid pace of technological innovation, a growing knowledge workforce, and shifting social and demographic trends, few would dispute that the primary task for management today is the leadership of organizational change. 2.3.3 Summary As the research done by Wasim and Imran, 2010 mentioned that the internal and external forces are important to organizational change. For example, in Apples case the external forces such as the competitive of IBM Company Apples competitive position changed fundamentally in 1981 when IBM entered the PC market. Because of the IMB PCs not only gained more market share, but they also emerged as the new standard for the industry. Apple responded by introducing the Macintosh in 1984, the Mac marked a breakthrough in ease of use, industrial design, and technical elegance; however the Macs slow processor speed and lack of compatible software limited sales. Thus, in a result of this, Apples net income fell 62% between 1981 and 1984, sending the company into a crisis, and this could be the internal pressures to Apple itself. Both the internal pressure and external pressure pushed Apple must make some organizational change in order to save the company and to have long term business. Therefore, Apple has introduces the iMac in August 1998 which priced $1299 all-in-one computer featured colorful translucent cases with a distinct eggshell design and also supported plug-and-play peripherals, saved Apple from crisis, because of the successful iMac, Apples sales outpaced the industrys average for the first time in years, Apple posted a $309 million profit in its 1998 fiscal year, reversing the previous years $1 billion loss. Apple as a good example of successful organizational change company, it has changed in response to technology, legislation, competition and consumer demand. One of the companys strategies after organizational change is to provide customers with high quality and high technology products since the consumer demand is changing with technology in the recent years such as iPad and iPod. Another successful strategy is the digital hub strategy, Apples shift towards a digital hub strategy was initiated by the debut of the iPod in 2001, followed by the iPhone in 2007, and then the iPad in 2010 and these product lines set Apple on a path toward becoming a full-fledged digital convergence company. In a summary of the above analysis, the two approaches of pressures pushed Apple Inc to go for organizational change, and after the changes done, it helps Apple Inc to reach good revenue and successful business. Apple Inc has made some strategy changes, they shortage their business into only four categories, and also refers to the research done by Graetz, 2000 which mentioned in the 2.3.2 section, the rapid pace of technological innovation, a growing knowledge workforce are the primary task for the leaders in the organizational change process, for example, in the leadership of Steve Jobs, Apple Inc has innovated some new high technology products such as iPad, iPod, iPhone and retail pathway. For example, Apple Inc not only wanted consumers to look at the eye-catching Macintosh designs, it is also wanted people to directly use and experience Apples software, the Apple retail experience gave many consumers their first exposure to the Macintosh product line. Another successful example o f Apple Inc because of the organizational change of Apple Inc is iPhone, the first iPhone was introduced in 2007 with many competitors such as Samsung, Nokia, HTC and etc, within two years, the iPhone went from zero to 30% of Apples total revenue, in terms of global Smartphones sales, the iPhone was the biggest growth story, capturing more than 14% of the market. From the two successful examples of Apple Inc in the organizational change could see that the suitable organizational change could help organizations with increase revenue and success business. 3.0 Analysis of case study 3.1 Visionary leadership Visionary leadership refers to the capacity to create and communicate a view of a desired state of affairs that clarifies the current situation and induces commitment to an even better future (Kathlee and Vincent, 2003). Colton 1985 described a visionary leader as one who established goals and objectives for individual and group action, which define not what we are but rather what we seek to be or do. The visionary leader inspires, challenges, guides and empowers. The reason why the Steve Jobs leadership is the visionary leadership is because Jobs truly added value, his evangelical zeal to show people the future potential of the product, this is vision as foresight, and has caused Jobs to be dubbed the priceless proselytizer (Uttal, 1985) and the missionary of micros. His visionary capacity as a promoter was also widely recognized and appreciated within the company, and Jobs is outstanding in his merging of foresight and imagination into the genius of the proselytizer. Visionary leadership has been discussed since many years back by few different researchers, Murphy, 1990 provided some insights into the nature of visionary leadership, he concluded that more effective principals have a clear sense of direction for their schools that they are able to clearly articulate, and the visionary leader focuses on fewer coordinated objectives around which staff members energy can be mobilized. Refers to Frances and Henry, 1989, an alternative image of visionary leadership might be that of a drama, Peter Brook, 1968, the legendary director of the Royal Shakespeare Company, has suggested that the magic of the theatre lies in that moment when fiction and life somehow blend together. It may be brief, but it is the goal of playwright, director, actor and audience, the result of rehearsal, the performance itself, and the attendance of the audience. Brook, however, finds these words too static, and prefers the French equivalents repetition, representation and assist ance, all of which, coincidentally, have special meanings in English. Kotter, 1996, also discuss that without the vision of leaders the motivation level of organization people may go down and their activities become meaningless which can prove worst for an organizations at the later end, he further said that vision plays a key role in producing useful change by helping to direct, align and inspire actions on the part of large numbers of people. Without an appropriate vision, a transformation effort can easily dissolve into a list of confusing, incompatible and time consuming projects that go in the wrong direction or nowhere at all. In the case study of Apple Inc, the visionary leadership of Steve Jobs brought lots of revenue to company, for example, Jobs came up with the great vision that the personal computer should become a digital hub for managing all of a users music, videos, photos and content in 2000, thus, Apple Inc got into the personal device business with the iPod and then the iPad. Thanks to the great vision of Jobs, iPod with its sleek design, simple user interface and large storage, it soon became an icon of the Digital Age in the words of one writer, and the first iPod stored up to 1,000 songs while other companys MP3 only can store hours of songs, by 2010, Apple reportedly held more than 70% of the MP3 market in the US. When other competitors still using normal music players which can only store hours of songs, Jobs made their vision to have some device which could upload and download digital songs, thus, the iPod was released with simple and nice design and could store up to 1,000 songs. The suc cessful visionary leadership helped Apple Inc increased company market share in the industry and also increased the revenue for company. The other successful vision of Jobs made when he lead Apple Inc was the innovation of the product between a Smartphone and a laptop computer which named iPad, the iPad could either connect to the Wifi or customers could buy a premium iPad which can use with 3G services, and also iPad could run almost all the iPhone apps. More than 450,000 iPads were sold during its first week on the market which brought to Apple Inc with good profits. Jobs commented that, It feels great to have the iPad launched into the world-its going to be a game changer. The successful of iPad released in the industry had lead other competitors to enter into the tablet market, it had produced immediately competitor responds such as HP said it would make a Wintel-based tablet, and Dell planned to ship an Android-based tablet. 3.2 Charismatic leadership Charismatic leadership theory is a popular and much researched approach to understanding effective leadership (Hughes, Ginnett and Curphy, 2003), Kippenberger, 2002, stated charismatic leaders are seen to have a powerful vision, a great deal of self-confidence, a strong conviction that they are right, and an assertive, even dominant, personality, this makes them highly effective in crisis situations or periods of significant change, but it can also make them potentially dangerous-especially if they choose the wrong vision. Steve Jobs is a strong charismatic leader, as a charismatic leader, he is highly inspirational, likes using stories to motivate, and his passion for perfection is inspiring, and when relying on behaviors that emphasize the directive style, Jobs does not hold his ideas about the direction of a project or someones ideas on how to resolve a problem. Steve Jobs had a great leader way of interacting with his employees, he could be greatly kind, rewarding and motivationa l, in a mean while, and he could also be cruel, despondent, demanding and thankless. His interaction with suppliers, other companies, and customers was equally unpredictable, no one ever knew that to expect from him, and the employees and suppliers are all most willing to follow his idea and what he asked them doing. Charismatic leadership theory was expanded by a number of researchers who have produced complementary, yet somewhat different, conceptualizations of charismatic leadership (House, 1977; Sashkin, 1988; Trice and Bever, 1986). Each of these theoretical offerings links a leaders influence; improved follower motivation, satisfaction and effort, and charismatic leadership can operate either as an individualized or a group level phenomenon depending on organizational context (Avolio and Yammarino, 1990). Shamir, House and Arthur, 1993, suggested that the effects of charismatic leadership on followers motivation are mediated by the increased salience of collective identities in followers self-concepts. Other researchers have done the similar research on the charismatic leadership as well and they have recorded that the performance and effectiveness of charismatic leaders is theorized to lay, at least in part, in their ability to inspire followers to work towards a vision rather than motivat ing followers with rewards and punishments, in particular, charismatic leaders tend to use specific communication strategies to inspire followers and implement social change (Shamir, Arthur and House, 1994; Fiol et al, 1999; Emrich et al, 2001; Bligh, Kohles and Meindl, 2004). In the case study of Apple Inc, the grate charismatic leadership of Steve Jobs had pulled company from crisis and leaded Apple Inc to become one of the most successful companies in the industry. For example, Steve Jobs always use stories to inspire and motivate people in his work, he is able to build the culture and promote his vision and mission for Apple Inc, and he used stories that made his employees feel they were making a difference in the world. Jobs said he wanted to make a dent in the universe with this company (Young, 2005). This is the mission he instilled in his employees and gave them a sense of purpose and devotion that continues to this day. The charisma leader ability made employees to work together and efficiency, and enhanced the productivity and revenue for the company. The other example is Steve Jobs wanted every products which he developed need to be perfect, such as during the development of iPhone. The initial design has the glass screen set into an aluminum case, one Monday morning Jobs went over to see Ive, I didnt sleep last night, he said, because I realized that I just dont love it. Ive, to his dismay, instantly saw that Jobs was right, I remember feeling absolutely embarrassed that he had to make the observation, he says. The problem was that the iPhone should have been all about the display, but in its current design the case competed with the display instead of getting out of the way. The whole device felt too masculine, task-driven and efficient. Guys, youve killed yourselves over this design for the last nine months, but were going to change it, we are all going to have to work nights and weekends, and if you want, we can hand out some guns so you can kill us now.. Jobs told to his team. Instead of balking, the team agreed. Same cases happened many times in the new product development, any small design or material Jobs did not like, he would tell his team No and change everything again even it needs to take more times to working on it, he did not care as he needs the products to be perfect, and because of his idea and suggestion were fully reasonable, employees agreed to change it and Jobs would worked together with his team to ensure the new perfect products could deliver to customers on time. Also because of his charismatic leadership ability the first iPhone-a revolutionary 3.5 inch touch screen interface placed commands at the touch of users fingertips without a physical keyboard and its entire system ran on a specially adapted version of Apples OS X platform, successfully sold about six million units over five quarters, this brought Apple Inc with very good revenue and the market position in the smart phone market. 4.0 Conclusion In a summary the analysis in this research paper, the leadership plays a significant role in the organizational change, and the type of leadership which Steve Jobs used in the Apple Inc are visionary leadership and charismatic leadership. Refers to Wasim and Imran, 2010, organizational leadership has a central role in evolution and cultivating an organization, it can help the member of an organization and working teams to face the challenges and to work for organizational goal in a worthy way, and the role of a leader is also very prominent while addressing the change issue for organizations. And in the case study, the great leadership of Steve Jobs helped Apple Inc to reached high revenue and good market position. Therefore, organizations need to pay attention to the importance of leadership during the organizational change, good leadership could bring organizations successful organizational change and business, and ineffective leadership could result in fail on organizational chang e. Both visionary leadership and charismatic leadership are important for organizations, vision is a mental image of a possible and desirable future of the organization (Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Lyerly and Maxey, 2000), there do not have any leader without vision, and the visionary leadership are very important for organizations development, leaders need to have a clear visionary image on how the future development of organization, otherwise, the organization will face decline. Such as in Apple Inc, Steve Jobs had the clear vision of how the future development of Apple Inc, which market and products organization need to develop, without the successful visionary leadership of Jobs Apple Inc could not reach todays success and market position. Charisma as a relationship between an individual leader and one or more followers based on leader behaviors that engender intense reactions and attributions on the part of followers, a charismatic leader may enchant the subordinates, as a result, the subordinates are likely to follow a leader who is charismatic (Wu and Wang, 2012). The charisma leadership of Steve Jobs pulled Apple Inc out from crisis, he pushed perfection on every product which he created, to ensure the quality and design of the product could perfect to be delivered to customers. The way he interactive with his employees made employees were all willing to follow his suggestions and instructions, only all the followers could work together, then the productivity and efficiency of work could be done, Jobs as the great charismatic leader leaded Apple Inc to reach todays performance. Therefore, leaders need to have the charisma ability to lead organizations, and organizations need to have the charisma leadership to ensur e organization could have successful business and performance, in a final result, could reach high revenue for organizations. (Approximately 2736 words)